Wednesday, October 30, 2019

Economics and Environment Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Economics and Environment Policy - Essay Example It would be very relevant to quote a few sentences regarding the definition of Environmental economics laid down by the National Bureau of Economic Research Environmental Economics program. "undertakes theoretical or empirical studies of the economic effects of national or local environmental policies around the world. Particular issues include the costs and benefits of alternative environmental policies to deal with air pollution, water quality, toxic substances, solid waste, and global warming." (para 6) According to Davis Lamb the environmental economics' focal point is to centralise on the perception of externality of environment. In other word some or more of the outcomes of a commotion are not evaluated in accordance to its fiscal result. As an example he states that when the pollution level of a given state reaches its optimum level the price of the producer of this pollution subject should be taken into consideration otherwise the balance would be in the brink of commotion. Therefore it is encouraged to formulate the outcome of a polluting medium in respect of utility oriented price format. "in connection to public goods (goods that are "non-excludable" and "non-rival" - that is, they are open to all). Visitors to an open-access recreational area will use the resource more than if they had to pay for it, leading to environmental degradation. This of course assumes that there is no other policy instrument (for example, permits, regulation) being used to control access." (Lamb, 2006, 148) In economic terminology, according to, Davis Lamb in his book Cult to Culture: The Development of Civilization on the Strategic Strata, "these are examples of market failures, and that is an outcome which is not efficient in an economic sense. Here the inefficiency is caused because too much of the polluting activity will be carried out, as the polluter will not take the interests of those adversely affected by the pollution into account. This has led to controversial research into measuring well-being which tries to measure when pollution is actually starting to affect human health and general quality of life". (Lamb, 2006, pg 149) Therefore it is quite evident that the prime concern of the subject environmental economics is to formulate logical outcome and settlement of the issue of pollution and control thereby saving the environment. To attain this objective there are four major solution schemes present as effective tool. Along with these four there are also other alternative tools that are quite logical in implementation. The four basic formulations could be enumerated as Better defined property rights Taxes and tariffs on pollution or Removal of "dirty subsidies" Quotas on pollution Environmental regulations According to the Coase Theorem the assigning property rights is based on a fact that there is all probability that this application would lead to an optimal solution of environmental policies of economics whereby in accordance to regardless of who receives them, the basic

Monday, October 28, 2019

The media institutions Essay Example for Free

The media institutions Essay Media is the method and organisation used by specialist groups to convey messages to large socially mixed and widely dispersed. It can be defined as a means of public communication, which is open to all audiences of people living under different conditions in widely different cultures, therefore reaching a great and wider audience. It establishes contact with people at a distance from the media source and from each other. If we are referring to a single form of communication such as T. V or radio than we use the term medium. The audience for mass communications is unique to modern society and the main form of mass media is Television, Internet, Radio, and Newspapers. Its obvious that the mass institution has increased as individuals are spending an overwhelming amount of physical time with different media forms. This is known as centrality of the media. Analysing sociologist arguments and reports will successfully assist me to complete this essay. Throughout this essay I aim to discuss and analyse the following media institutions: Internet, Video games and Television. The first media institution to be mentioned in this essay is the Internet. The Internet is the largest WAN (wide area network) in the world. It was developed by the United States Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency in the 1960s and was initially known as ARPANET. As the Internet became more established thus having a positive aspect on its popularity many people obtained access to the Internet and the number of people who use it is growing considerably. The main reason being that it now contains user friendly software, which has packages that help people use the Internet easily e. g. Netscape, AOL. The Internet has now become cheaper as companies realise that they can make a great deal of profit if the majority of the society have the Internet e. g. If consumers join the NTL phone line they get the Internet free therefore encouraging a lot of people to get it. There are many deals that means anyone who has a phone line, a computer and modem can be connected for as little as i 12-i 15 a month. In addition it now has a faster communication telephone line, which means that communication can reach top speeds, visuals images and sound can be quickly downloaded. Digital communications across ISDN lines allow greater amounts of information to be accessed. Again the Internet has become part of the civilisation, as an individual if you dont have access to the Internet you are seen as not being up to date. A statistics illustrate the Internets popularity has increased as it now reaches 146 countries, and involves 3 million computers and 40,000 sub networks. The Internet has become such an established form of media institution that its is often seen as a valuable tool to sell things over the web which is called the e-commerce. There are also 500 million users worldwide and the numbers is still immensely growing. In addition as computers are becoming cheaper, society is realising that you need to be computer literate to cope with the heavy demands of the business world. As more economically developed countries revolve around the computer. Michio Kaku a sociologists state that in the past decade, more scientific knowledge has been created that in all human history. Computer power is doubling every eighteen months and the Internet is doubling every year. Gilroy proclaims the Internet is still continuously growing he used California as an example of his Internet popularity research. He illustrates that California has dramatically expanded its share of high tech jobs in the US. In 1997 2000 thousands a month was being created. By 1996 there were 355 Internet hosts per 1,000 people in Silicon Valley a far higher ratio than anywhere else in the US. Charles leadbeater states that Internet usage is multiplying as five times the rate that television spread in the 1980s. Users of the Internet are now beginning to chat, shop, and entertain themselves through the comfort of their home. However sociologists believe that the Internet has a threat to society as it begin to restrict people from socialisation they state that people will become unhealthy and mentally depressed. Tele working such as shopping, going to school will be replaced by computer links. People will be able to invade private lives through broad-catching as they can pick any information they want such as radio and T. V programmes. The Internet will force a downward spiral in the economy as people will no longer need to purchase products such as music from the stores but instead download e. g. Kazza. Older generations worry that the Internet will have a negative impact on young people in society due to the fact that the Internets reputation is known for its quick reliable response 24/7. They explain that the younger generations live in an impatient and permanently depth less present, in which there is no sense of perspective and little sense of obligation. On the contrary they is also many advantages of using the Internet for example the disabled tele-working would be more convenient. If you live under the pressure of the world then it also saves time as you can carry out daily tasks from the comfort of your home. Broad catching makes people access and pick any information they need at a quick and reliable speed and includes free downloads which save money. You will be able to communicate with people world wide at a free or cheap cost this is known as asynchronous communication. Society will soon be able to obtain a wide variety of information. Serial delivery will broaden peoples knowledge and we will be entertained quite easily. Copyright will become a thing of the past. Information will be the property of everyone and we will have access to everything. Most importantly it will reduce the importance of characteristic skin colour, gender physical attraction and sexual orientation will no longer be important in the virtual would of the Internet. Everyone will be viewed as equal. The second media institution is video games. Video games can be played on several types of platforms: home consoles used with TV sets, computers, and computers with access to the Internet, coin-operated arcade machines, and handheld devices including games systems, cell phones and Palm Pilots. In the past these electronically products were not available highlighting the fact that they have become developed and more poplar. Atari introduced video games in 1972; this was a ping pong game. Nintendo introduced hardware in 1986 and it is estimated that over 4 billion pounds has been created through them selling games. Other companies that are involved in producing games are Sony, Microsoft and Saga. As fashion and taste changes, so does the video games, and many companies try to change the correct theme of their games e. g. at the beginning of the football season a football game becomes popular e. g. Fifa 2004. This re-emphasises the idea that games are extremely popular. Computer and video game sales in the United States are a $6. 35 billion industry, with estimates of $16. 9 billion by 2003. The major studies indicate that children ages 2-18 spend, on average, between 20-33 minutes a day playing video games. The amount of time spent playing video games varies by age. On average, 2-7 years old spend 8 minutes a day, 8-13 year olds spend 32 minutes a day, and 14-18 years old spend 20 minutes a day playing video games. Boys spend substantially more time playing video games than do girls, regardless of age. On any given day, 44% of boys report playing video games compared to 17% of girls. Another piece of evidence that shows that video games are becoming more popular is Media technology in the home. In 1986 10% had video games, 1989 11% had video games, 1991 12% had video games, 1992 17% had video games and in 1993 20% had video games. Overall these statistics accentuate that video games are becoming more popular. The Sociologist SKIRROW quoted that: Video games are unattractive to women since they are apart of a technology which is identified with male power, and they usually involve male characters acting in aggressive way. Women also state that games are sexist because they tend to have no main role in the video game e. g. they are being rescued or need saving by the main character. Women characters in the game are also not identified by their name but for example someones girlfriend. Most games are targeted towards the males so most games examine boxing, racing, football and fighting. Overall most games are based on real life situations, this means that they put real life situations into the game e. g. Sims. Its not the producers fault but the nations fault, as this is how the society operates. Provenzo states that There does seem to be a significant relationships between aggressive behaviour and subjects playing video games. Provenzo also quoted that women tend to have no action in video games, women have no names, and many video games are masculine. The fact that the invisible culture is increasing illustrates that children enjoy being in controlled of something, but are they really in control or are they being influenced negatively. Many games are become extremely realistic reflecting real life situations where too much exposure to a premature mind such as a child can affect them permanently. Video games have been evaluated and its been concluded that they are not just entertaining but also have effects which can be positive and negative. The positive aspect of gaming is that it has an education impact as it provides individuals with detailed insight on computer literacy, the design feature in the most popular interactive games are extremely detailed, which sociologist believe improve skills such as visualisation, visual attention and concentration. Playing violent games allows them to explore their feelings, master their rage, improve strategically thinking and empower themselves against life challenges. The negative aspect of participating in playing games is that it sometimes interferes with homework and academic performance. It increases verbal aggression and physical aggression. People that spend time playing violent games are probably more likely to be in fights than people that dont play at all. Television is also known a media institution, in 1922 the first public broadcasting began by a private company. Other companies joined in the business and they set up their own channels which was to be presented on T. V. These were the BBC (1935), Channel 4 (1982), Sky (1984) and Channel 5 (1995). Television has definitely increased it occupies a large, and often the largest, part of most peoples leisure time, to the extent that entertainment and social life in general is sometimes organised around the television (mass media). Statistics and facts show this. 99% of the population have a TV set. More people have a TV than own a phone. Television popularity has increased over the years as in 1986 the daily viewing was 78 hours, 1991 was 79 hours and in 1993 was 82 hours. These statistics illustrates a positive correlation meaning that its obvious that the hours have increased in 2003. Since Television was becoming more popular, politicians scrutinised the TV and this lead them to set up the Peacock Committee. This was set up by Professor Peacock. The disadvantage of TV is that research has confirmed that the roles are allocated to the sexes on television are highly distorted. The stereotypical role of man portrayed on T. V is that they tend to be assertive, tough and dynamic. On the contrary the female role is that women tend to be soft, deferential and, whenever possible, physically attractive. This can be emphasised by an important factor in T. V, commercials (advertising). Women have the traditional domestic role in the household, as they tend to show how to use the vacuum cleaner or what kitchen appliance the consumer should purchase e. g. cooker. This is significantly clear that this would be targeted towards the female audience, as this is how western society operates, women tend to do most of the domestic duties. Products aimed at men involve women as being sex objects e. g. Lynx the Lynx effect. The advantage of TV is that we can get a wider perspective of the knowledge world wide society learns about different cultures such as religion music, food, clothing etc. Also we are quickly entertained from the comfort of our homes In conclusion, I believe that the media institution is gaining power and will come to eventually directing and determining the culture of society rather than respond to or reflect society culture. Overall sociologist believe that the mass media is increasingly becoming more popular as the term meditation describes this process of mass recognition. The media has begun to replace our local knowledge and awareness. This suggests that the media has become very popular and important in society lives due to the fact that they have replaced community-based forms of social and cultural life.

Saturday, October 26, 2019

Anthrax :: viruses, diseases,vaccines

A minor scratch or abrasion, usually on an exposed area of the face or neck or arms, is infected by spores from the soil or a contaminated animal or carcass. The spores germinate, vegetative cells multiply, and a characteristic gelatinous edema develops at the site. This develops into papule within 12-36 hours after infection. The papule changes rapidly to a vesicle, then a pustule, and finally into a necrotic ulcer from Unlike chemical agents like Cyanide which disperse over time, Anthrax [spores] can survive in soil, water and elsewhere for as long as 40 years and is highly resistant to eradication. They can only be killed by steam sterilization or burning, but not by disinfectants. An infection of wild stock populations could follow a biological attack with spores. The infected animals could then pass on the disease to people. An Anthrax Vaccine does exist and it is at present produced under contract to the Department of Defense. The immunization consists of three injections given two weeks apart followed by three additional shots given at 6, 12, and 18 months. Annual booster injections of the vaccine are required to maintain a protective level of immunity. This particular method is effective when dealing with Anthrax contacted through the skin and is believed to be effective against inhaled spores in the case of a biological warfare attack. For those unvaccinated individuals, antibiotics like penicillin is known to lessen the severity of the illness, two million units every two hours administered intervenously It was formerly thought that inhaled spores are 100% fatal despite treatment but monkeys exposed to Anthrax spores have responded successfully to antibiotics, implying that antibiotic therapy may be useful in a biological warfare setting.

Thursday, October 24, 2019

Modern Man Has Become Enslaved by Time :: Argumentative Persuasive Essays

Modern Man Has Become Enslaved by Time In no characteristic is existing society in the West so sharply distinguished from the earlier societies, whether of Europe or the East, than in its conception of time. To the ancient Chinese or Greek, to the Arab herdsman or Mexican peon of today, time is represented by the cyclic processes of nature, the alternation of day and night, the passage from season to season. The nomads and farmers measured and still measure their day from sunrise to sunset, and their year in terms of seedtime and harvest, of the falling leaf and the ice thawing on the lakes and rivers. The farmer worked according to the elements, the craftsman for as long as he felt it necessary to perfect his product. Time was seen as a process of natural change, and men were not concerned in its exact measurement. For this reason civilizations highly developed in other respects had the most primitive means of measuring time: the hour glass with its trickling sand or dripping water, the sun dial, useless on a dull day, and the candle or lamp whose unburnt remnant of oil or wax indicated the hours. All these devices were approximate and inexact, and were often rendered unreliable by the weather or the personal laziness of the tender. Nowhere in the ancient or mediaeval world were more than a tiny minority of men concerned with time in the terms of mathematical exactitude. Modern, western man, however, lives in a world that runs according to the mechanical and mathematical symbols of clock time. The clock dictates his movements and inhibits his actions. The clock turns time from a process of nature into a commodity that can be measured and bought and sold like soap or sultanas. And because, without some means of exact time keeping, industrial capitalism could never have developed and could not continue to exploit the workers, the clock represents an element of mechanical tyranny in the lives of modern men more potent than any individual exploiter or than any other machine. It is therefore valuable to trace the historical process by which the clock influenced the social development of modern European civilization. It is a frequent circumstance of history that a culture or civilization develops the device that will later be used for its destruction.

Wednesday, October 23, 2019

Importance of Education Essay

Generally, at the start of a very young age, children learn to develop and use their mental, moral and physical powers, which they acquire through various types of education. Education is commonly referred to as the process of learning and obtaining knowledge at school, in a form of formal education. However, the process of education does not only start when a child first attends school. Education begins at home. One does not only acquire knowledge from a teacher; one can learn and receive knowledge from a parent, family member and even an acquaintance. In almost all societies, attending school and receiving an education is extremely vital and necessary if one wants to achieve success. However, unfortunately we have places in the world, where not everyone has an opportunity to receive this formal type of education. The opportunities that are offered are greatly limited. Sometimes there are not enough resources to provide schooling. Furthermore because parents need their children to help them work in factories, have odd jobs, or just do farm work. Since it is not traditional, in some places, to receive a formal education, the one who receives an education is usually envied, praised and even admired by members of the community. Children sometimes look at other children with awe. Just the same way as one child might envy another because he got a new pair of sneakers, and wishes he could have too. There is a sense of admiration but at the same time there is a sense of jealousy as well. Seeing your peer doing better than yourself causes some tension and jealousy because of the scarce opportunities available. As a child, it’s hard to understand why there is a difference. Learning subjects in school is not enough. One can learn history, math, science in school, and be â€Å"book-smart†. In addition, one can learn how to live life by knowing what to say when, acting a certain way in certain situations and be â€Å"street-smart†. These two types of knowledge are extremely essential to be successful in life. For example, you can have all the â€Å"book† knowledge in the world about a certain profession, but if you don’t know how to behave with your co-workers and or your superiors, having â€Å"book†Ã‚  knowledge won’t get you too far. But no matter what, education is the key that allows people to move up in the world, seek better jobs, and ultimately succeed fully in life. Education is very important, and no one should be deprived of it.

Tuesday, October 22, 2019

Why Did Germany Become a Democratic Republic Essays

Why Did Germany Become a Democratic Republic Essays Why Did Germany Become a Democratic Republic Paper Why Did Germany Become a Democratic Republic Paper Essay Topic: The Republic When did Germany Become a Country The three main reasons why the evolution did not occur were because of the attitude of the people, he failure of the left to further the revolution and the success of the Whimper Republic in defending itself. In 1918 Germany was In chaos. The war was a disaster and so many people were suffering In Germany. In 1919, real Income was only 2,as of what It was In 1913, war financed by printing money and borrowing led to massive inflation and between 1913 and 1918 the mark lost 75% of its value. Major food and fuel shortages were occurring, costs out stripped wage increases, disease was rife, and thousands were dying from major flu epidemic, plus starvation for many thousands of people. Deaths from starvation and hypothermia were at 121,000 In 191 6 and an astonishing 293,000 wounded. People in Germany were furious with the situation they were in and many were discontented. But surprisingly the revolution came from above and it was Ultrasound who led the revolution. He also cleverly distanced the military from the armistice so that the stab-in-the-back myth could be manufactured. A constitutional monarchy was then created. Morale was incredibly low and on 28th October 1918 the Kiel Mutiny occurred In which the German Navy mutinied, 8 were shot dead and this dead to a general mutiny. This started the revolution from below. The US also sent a letter to Germany stating they would be more lenient if the Kaiser was to abdicate and under all of this pressure the Kaiser was finally forced to abdicate. An interim government was the set up but this was only to fill the gap between the time that the elections had be held to elect the parties into a constitutional democracy. It was at this point In which the revolution could have continued further and evolved but it didnt. One reason is the attitude of the people. The Stenciling agreement eve workers added benefits such as the 8 hour working day, full legal recognition and workers committees. This pleased the main majority of the workers. Also at the time many people were not prepared to go even further and many work content with having a constitutional democracy. Many thought that revolting further would cause havoc and many Just wanted to settle Into a new era In Germany. This Is one reason as to winy ten evolution 010 not napped Ana ten country SE I tea Into a constitutional democracy. Another reason was the failure of the left to further the revolution and take the entry into the constitutional democracy that they wanted. There was a lack of co- ordination and poor leadership from the left. For example in spring 1919 a wave of strikes occurred in the Our mines, Central Germany and Berlin. However, these protests were uncoordinated, with radical leaders desperately following rather than leading the protests. The KIP had neither strong leadership with a clear strategy nor a tightly organized party structure, as communists did in Russia. This meant that they could never strike effectively enough. Another reason the left failed was because of a jack of support. During the wave of strikes in 1919 there was a lack of support from the workers and this coupled with the poor organization and poor leadership of the KIP led to many strikes failing. Without support it is difficult to overthrow a government so another reason why the left failed was because of lack of support. So a key reason why the evolution didnt happen was because of the failings of the left wing parties. Another reason why the country didnt evolve into a constitutional democracy was because of the success of the Whimper Republic in defending itself. The Bert- Greener pact meant that the government would be supported by the armed forces and in return the government would support steps taken by the Armed Forces to preserve discipline and it would oppose any attempts at revolutionary uprising. The Whimper Republic successfully used this deal to crush the Separatist Uprising, an attack from the left. Also in 1919 in Bavaria the workers managed to break away from the control of the Reich Government and they set up an independent socialist republic but this was also crushed by the Fireworks. Also the civil war in the Our in 1920 was crushed by the Fireworks. In this incident a Red Army had been created in protest of the Kappa Putsch and about 50,000 socialist workers protested. They controlled the region so the Government sent in the Fireworks and a war between the two begun. But the Fireworks were ruthless and the uprising was easily suppressed. The Government successfully used the Bert-Greener deal to defend itself and this is another key factor as to why the country didnt evolve into a constitutional democracy because this factor coupled with the lefts ineptitude made it very difficult for any attack from the left to be successful. Overall I would say that the most important factor would be the failings of the left. This is because if they had co-ordinate and planned properly and got support behind them by rallying all the workers and supporters of the left wing then it would have been very difficult for the government to stop being overthrown and overrun. If this had occurred the left wing parties would have set up a constitutional democracy and the evolution would have occurred. But the left did not organism effectively enough and they failed in all their attempts and this is why I believe this is the most important reason.

Monday, October 21, 2019

Free Communication with Others Essay

Free Communication with Others Essay communication skills are adequately developed such that through them I am able to pass across meaningful and timely information to the people surrounding me. For instance, I am able to structure the information in a comprehensive manner by taking into account the context, age factor, and language familiarity. This enables me to purse a careful choice of words and proper tone so that the message I am passing across is received appropriately. I have significant trouble communicating with my church priest because of the need to match his tone and structure the message in such a manner he understands it correctly. I would like to change my inherent communication behavior in which I like passing across messages with hidden meanings and expect the people I am communicating with to understand me. Small Groups Communication My communication capabilities in small groups in impressive, since I am able to quickly analyze each individuals language level almost in instant. In addition, I am able to listen more carefully to each persons contribution to a talk. This enables me to structure my messages more appropriately. I tend to listen more than speaking in a small group situation. This is primarily because there is a domineering element coming from the need for each individual to make their contributions to the talk. My listening skills are adequately developed, since this gives me an adequate background of each individuals language level through analysis of word choice, tone, and articulation. I tend to listen more than talk in small groups, which is essentially not balanced. Moreover, I tend to disapprove my friends in small groups on ideas I do not agree with them. I would like to increase my ability to take into consideration each persons view before disputing. Public Speaking My public speaking skills are well developed with regard to word choice, articulation and use of proper tone to suit the context and gathering. The last time I gave a public presentation in front of others I felt uncomfortable because some members of the crowd appeared to put more scrutiny into my articulation as opposed to the message being passed across. However, my performance was excellent courtesy of the positive applause accorded to me. During public speaking I tend to incorporate jargons, which sometimes end up being misunderstood by some members of the gathering. Similarly, I tend to use complex colloquial expressions, which at times end up being misinterpreted by the audience. I would like to change these aspects to better my public speech delivery mechanisms.

Sunday, October 20, 2019

Element of art essays

Element of art essays The elements of art in The Guitar Player are that it is a realistic and ancient painting. This painting, as well as all of Vermeers paintings looks realistic. His shading and color choice are so real and human like. The facial expression gives the character, life and personality. It has certain qualities that make it look ancient, such as the dress the girl is wearing and the way her hair is put up and the old fashion guitar that she is using. The medium of the artwork is an oil painting done on canvas. Vermeer excelled in portraying comfortable interior scenes that are created with mathematical clarity and symmetry. He worked well exposing light to his artwork and directing attention toward a specific person or object using tonal values. The design is organized by having the main focus, the girl playing the guitar to the left of the painting, drawn the biggest with the most light shining on her. All attention is drawn to her. The right side of the painting is dark and empty. It is shown as being further off in the distance. Vermeer works very well with space and fills up the entire canvas. The distance is closely limited focusing mainly on the girl playing the guitar. There isnt much more going on in the artwork. Vermeer is great on detail and has another painting hanging on the wall along with books on a desk and a coat hanging over a chair. Everything is drawn big and close up and you can notice even very little details. It is drawn from the perspective that he is watching this girl play the guitar. The Guitar Player has both dark and light accents. The girl is illuminated by the light accent, and the dark accent shows the back corner of the room, where it is quiet and empty. Vermeer paints with such a fine touch that the transition between color and shading is not noticeable and does not prod ...

Saturday, October 19, 2019

Fukushima Nuclear Plant Explosion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Fukushima Nuclear Plant Explosion - Essay Example After the earthquake and the subsequent Fukushima accident the nuclear system went offline. This led to a shortage of electricity across the nation. A lot people suffered because business activity seized without electricity which caused the shutdown of operations of many corporations. The Fukushima nuclear accident had horrible repercussions for the Japanese people. The managers running the plant had to make some tough ethical decisions. Crews of workers were send in into the plant knowing fully they would be exposed to radiation levels above the level any human can endured. These courageous workers sacrificed their well being to protect the Japanese community. The government used a lot of disinformation tactics to hide the truth about the long term consequences of the Fukushima accident. A study performed on the situation revealed that out of 7.8 billion people living within 200 kilometers of Fukushima 400,000 people will develop cancer due to the radiation that was released after the accident

Friday, October 18, 2019

Modelling (Spreadsheet Modelling for OR) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Modelling (Spreadsheet Modelling for OR) - Essay Example From the above chart it is clear that there has been an increase in population among the age 20 to 25 than any other age group, this is a positive indication of the population because this shows an increase in the regions workforce. The above chart shows that there has been a population increase among the young females, however there has been a decline in population among those aged above 40 years, this is evident from our above chart which shows higher death rates among the old yet a very low levels of population aged between 40 years and above. The total rate from our data shows that the death rate total amounts to 1181.5 while that of the birth rate amounts to 871, when we proceed and find the mean rates then our mean death trate is equal to 69.5 while our birth rate mean is equal to 124.4286, this clearly shows that the population birth rate is higher than the population death rate, for this reason therefore it is evident that there is population growth in our region: From the above chart it is evident that there is positive and yet high population growth in the country, for this reason therefore as predicted... The above chart shows that there has been a population increase among the young females, however there has been a decline in population among those aged above 40 years, this is evident from our above chart which shows higher death rates among the old yet a very low levels of population aged between 40 years and above. Total birth rate and death rate: The total rate from our data shows that the death rate total amounts to 1181.5 while that of the birth rate amounts to 871, when we proceed and find the mean rates then our mean death trate is equal to 69.5 while our birth rate mean is equal to 124.4286, this clearly shows that the population birth rate is higher than the population death rate, for this reason therefore it is evident that there is population growth in our region: Death rate Birth rate total 1181.5 871 mean 69.5 124.4286 From the above chart it is evident that there is positive and yet high population growth in the country, for this reason therefore as predicted by Malthus the population in this region is growing at a Malthusian growth rate, for this reason therefore there is need to apply checks on the population, Malthus predicted that if the population was to grow at this rate then the result would be that there would occur natural ways to check population, positive check According to Malthus a country would grow in an arithmetic progression while the population will grow in geometric progression, for this reason the economy will not be in position to offer its citizens enough for survival and there will occur natural checks such as famine, malnutrition and other miseries. For this reason therefore to avoid such disasters there is need to undertake such as family planning, late marriages and sex

Strategic Management of Human Resources Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Strategic Management of Human Resources - Essay Example On the other hand many enlightened businesses undertook the same to provide an enhanced experience to their employees which in turn greatly added their contribution to the organisation. The next level of change in the role and functions of personnel departments occurred with automation. Thus computerisation of functions such as pay roll and record keeping relieved personnel managers to focus on larger issues enhancing their contribution to strategic value addition to the organization as a whole. Personnel departments are also becoming more aware of the roles and responsibilities of line managers so that there is greater integration between the two for attaining strategic value. The delivery of greater quality of services by personnel departments is thus providing impetus to development in other functions of management. Personnel departments thus increasingly came to be seen not as boundary managers but value builders The traditional role of the personnel department has been seen as recruitment, defining job roles, training, structuring of pay and allowances, measuring performance and finally relieve those who are not performing satisfactorily. In many organisations these were also dealing with labour relations. However over the years, this role has been enlarged within the scope of general functions stated above to include induction of the best talent, providing effective training as per needs of the organization, designing and measuring job roles and performance, compensation management to include not just remuneration but also employee stock options based on performance and as a form of incentive and providing feedback to the management on the state of human resources in the organisation. During this stage, the term, human resources manager was being increasingly used in the management lexicon to represent the functions carried out by personnel managers. (Bersin, 2006) Induction of information technology into management and personnel functions had a lasting impact on its role and functions. Information technology systems automated routine and repetitive tasks which were so far engaging personnel managers such as pay rolls, performance reporting and incentive management. (Bersin, 2006). Systems such as recruitment and application tracking, total compensation packages build around cost to company, e learning and organizational development resulted in freeing the human resources manager to focus his attention on achieving key organizational goals by becoming a business partner in strategy implementation. Thus gradually personnel departments provided critical inputs for organizational growth. The emergence of the information and knowledge economy has also provided a critical role to personnel departments in what is being called as talent management. (Bersin, 2006). This implies personnel strategies which can identify best talent critical to organizational growth, retain and motivate it. The various strategies used for this purpose include management of competencies, measurement of performance, aligning these with the compensation package; assess overall contribution to the organization and so on. The overall aim is to limit job hopping, a trend

Thursday, October 17, 2019

Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakovs Scheherazade Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakovs Scheherazade - Essay Example Of course, the orientalism of the symphonic poem makes a significant impact on the images the listener may have in his / her mind; however, the way they are represented depends on the listener’s experience only. Personally, I like the first part the most. For me, it is the most bright and memorable when it comes to visual imagery. This part of Scheherazade is definitely about the sea. With the first sound of the woodwinds after the main theme, I see the sunlight that goes through the calm and glassy water so it shines and even become hard to look at. After the entrance of the second main theme, when the orchestra plays tutti, it is the time for the ship to appear. It is a massive, powerful ship with huge sails; it seems that no wind and no storm can destroy it. Music renders the feeling of greatness and stability. Also, it reflects the movements in the see, namely, how waves roll back and forth calmly and steadily. Suddenly, a blast of wind destroys quietness at sea; the waves become larger and larger, calmness turns into a heavy storm with the ship being its victim which is thrown to and fro. All the themes interweave, and the string party become more restless. The image of the storm is com pleted with despairing exclamations in the wind instruments. But the storm blows over, and the see is calm and peaceful again. The second part of the symphonic poem starts with the theme from the first part followed by a rich ornamented theme in bassoons which is developed in variations in parties of other instruments. The theme is so smooth and melodious that it reminds of a human voice, like someone is telling a story. Further, tense surges up and becomes more uneasy, emotional and enthralling. The exclamations in the group of brass instruments reminds of fanfares, and it creates an image of a blistering battle, a struggle to the last breath. In fact, the entire march-like episode based on these

Writing profile on foster parent Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Writing profile on foster parent - Essay Example In the statistics provided by the Children Uniting Nations, citing the source of information from the Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting System (AFCARS), it was disclosed that â€Å"more than 463,000 children live in foster care. In California, which has the largest foster care population than any other state, the number of foster youth has tripled in the last 20 years† (par. 1). Locating competent and highly qualified foster parents who could genuinely meet and support varied needs of children in need is therefore challenging. As one tried to locate potential foster parents, it was convenient to go directly to one of the established foster homes in Southern California and interview professional members of the organization’s team with regards to parents who signified intentions to become foster or adoptive parents. The Southern California Foster Family and Adoption Agency (SCFFAA) has been serving the needs of homeless children since 1994. It was deemed com mitted to â€Å"helping abused, abandoned and neglected children find secure, stable and nurturing homes. The agency provides for the well-being of children in its care and helps them become independent and successful adults† (Southern California Foster Family and Adoption Agency 1).

Wednesday, October 16, 2019

Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakovs Scheherazade Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakovs Scheherazade - Essay Example Of course, the orientalism of the symphonic poem makes a significant impact on the images the listener may have in his / her mind; however, the way they are represented depends on the listener’s experience only. Personally, I like the first part the most. For me, it is the most bright and memorable when it comes to visual imagery. This part of Scheherazade is definitely about the sea. With the first sound of the woodwinds after the main theme, I see the sunlight that goes through the calm and glassy water so it shines and even become hard to look at. After the entrance of the second main theme, when the orchestra plays tutti, it is the time for the ship to appear. It is a massive, powerful ship with huge sails; it seems that no wind and no storm can destroy it. Music renders the feeling of greatness and stability. Also, it reflects the movements in the see, namely, how waves roll back and forth calmly and steadily. Suddenly, a blast of wind destroys quietness at sea; the waves become larger and larger, calmness turns into a heavy storm with the ship being its victim which is thrown to and fro. All the themes interweave, and the string party become more restless. The image of the storm is com pleted with despairing exclamations in the wind instruments. But the storm blows over, and the see is calm and peaceful again. The second part of the symphonic poem starts with the theme from the first part followed by a rich ornamented theme in bassoons which is developed in variations in parties of other instruments. The theme is so smooth and melodious that it reminds of a human voice, like someone is telling a story. Further, tense surges up and becomes more uneasy, emotional and enthralling. The exclamations in the group of brass instruments reminds of fanfares, and it creates an image of a blistering battle, a struggle to the last breath. In fact, the entire march-like episode based on these

Tuesday, October 15, 2019

Children's views, needs, wishes and feelings are at the heart of Essay

Children's views, needs, wishes and feelings are at the heart of national legislation and international agreements and convent - Essay Example From such international law, the Convention on the Rights of the Child has been specifically drawn. The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action also provide various legal guidelines on the protection of children’s rights and welfare. For various states, specific provisions are laid out, including the Equal Protection Clause in the US, the basic rights of children as protected by the 14th Amendment of the US Constitution. More provisions on the protection of these rights are also specifically indicated by various countries. These laws and policies seek to protect children from human rights violations, treating these children as vulnerable members of society. This paper is based on the premise that children’s views, needs, wishes and feelings are at the heart of national legislation and international agreements and conventions. In relation to current policy, this essay shall critically discuss the implications of such premise for early years’ practice among chil dren. First, an initial overview of childhood needs, views, and feelings in relation to national laws and conventions will be presented. Secondly, a discussion on children’s human rights as guaranteed by the UN and other legislative bodies shall also be presented. Thirdly, this essay will also provide the considerations made for children’s feelings and needs in relation to the specific laws and conventions. Fourth, the No Child Left behind Policy of the US will also be discussed in order to detect current trends in children’s rights policies. Fifth, a relationship between the NCLB and the international conventions will be considered. Sixth, the impact of these laws on the improvement of children’s welfare shall be presented. Finally, this essay shall end with a summary and a conclusion of the different points discussed and detailed. Body Overview of childhood needs and feelings Children’s feelings and needs have been brought sharply into internatio nal focus and attention during the First World War when millions of children experienced significant hardships as a result of international human conflicts (Fortin, 2003). In effect, the sufferings of these children served as the foundation for children’s rights. Eglantyne Jebb had a crucial role in the establishment of the 1924 Declaration of the Rights of the Child (Glendon, 2002). These rights were primarily based on her Christian faith (Glendon, 2002). The foundations of children’s rights then were on the protection and nurturing of the child, securing their moral privileges including their need for love and understanding (Fortin, 2003). Various rights are granted to humans, especially as soon as they reach the age of majority. One of the most important rights granted to these humans include the right to vote; however, children or minors below the age of 18 are not granted this right. In general, children do not seem to have control of the things which happen to th em or the matters which concern them (Fortin, 2003). This is very much apparent in daily situations and activities including school, religion, and upbringing. School subjects are compulsory for them to attend and study, mostly based on their location; moreover, for most children until the age of 14, their religion must be that which is inherited from their parents (Fortin, 2003). Parents decide,

Nutrition - Food Essay Example for Free

Nutrition Food Essay In our today’s society, especially western countries, the issue of fast food seems to be at the top of every health related debate. As these debates become more controversial, the question of who bears the responsibility remains unanswered. In his essay, Don’t Blame the Eater, David Zinczenko attempts to answer this key question by placing the greater responsibility of America’s obesity and other fast food related health issues on the fast food industries. Contrary to Zinczenko’s argument, Raldy Balko, in his essay, What You Eat Is Your Business, states that, people should take ownership of their health and well-being, and are therefore responsible for what and how they eat. Although both Zinczenko and Balko address the issue of responsibility, though with contrast, but valid arguments, Zinczenko seems to present a more convincing argument due to the way in which he explains the politics of food, the way in which our lifestyles are altered by what we eat, and things we can do to change the way we see food and its role in our lives. Although Zinczenko hold consumers responsible to an extent, he blames the fast food industries for the rising rate of obesity and other health issues related to fast food due to their failure to provide labels for their products. Zinczenko convincingly supports his claim by noting statistical data that shows the rise in money spent to treat diabetes. â€Å"Before 1994, diabetes in children was generally caused by a genetic disorder only 5 percent of childhood cases were obesity related, or Type 2 diabetes. Today, according to the National Institutes of Health, Type 2 diabetes accounts for at least 30 percent of all new childhood cases of diabetes in this country†(Zinczenko 392). He argues that, if the fast food companies are regulated so that they are responsible for their food contents, by providing proper labels, than consumers will make informed food choices. Contrary to Zinczenko, Balko argues that what one eats should be a matter of personal responsibility. To Balko’s credit, I believe that people should take personal responsibility for their health by adding a sensible diet and exercise to their routines. Where I differ from Balko is when he says that government restrictions on food are a result of people making poor food choices. According to Balko, â€Å"a society where everyone is responsible for everyone else’s well-being is a society more apt to accept government restrictions† (397). I think Balko’s argument in this regard, is a selfish one, and is an attempt to exempt the rich from paying their fair share of taxes that would otherwise benefit the poor or some middle families who cannot afford the high cost of health insurance. Both Zinczenko and Balko seem to agree on the rising health costs that are somehow a result of fast food, these two authors seem to differ on reasons. Zinczenko argues that health care cost is on the rise because of diseases caused by fast food due to the failure of fast food companies to provide labels and that consumers should not be blame for it. However, Balko argues that it is so that, we allow the â€Å"government to come between us and our waistline† (396). Balko states that, the more the government continues to fund health issues that are direct attribute of poor food/health choices, the more people will continue to dine on fast food and engage not in an effective diet and exercise regimen. (398) The growth of the fast food industry and the rate at which fast food is consumed is so fast, and its accompanying risks of obesity and related cardiovascular diseases have become a societal epidemic. Zinczenko blames the fast food industries for the spring in the rate to which obesity have grown in the United States. Even though Zinczenko is right about the rising rate of obesity, and that the consumption of fast food forms part of its etiology, the thesis of his argument cannot be proven and therefore cannot form the basis for his claims against the fast food companies since there are other contributing factors regarding the cause, onset, and progression of obesity. Obesity is also biologically linked. These biological attributors include: genetics, hormones, enzymes, and vitamins and minerals. Some people have fat in their genes that, no matter what they do, they are just fat. Others have issues with hormonal imbalances and or inadequate enzymatic actions that would aid in the adequate digestion and absorption of certain foods. Fast food is just one of the many environmental attributes associated with obesity. So Zinczenko can accurately make his case against the fast food industries for providing labels so as to enable consumers make informed food choices and not a case of obesity. Sometimes, people are too fast to pass judgment on others, especially people that are obese. I am equally guilty of the accusation myself. I work as a nurse at a nursing home facility and, in most cases, when staff member comes to me complaining of headache, first thing I say to them is; let’s check your blood pressure and, God forbid, the blood pressure is elevated, or if that person just look fat to me, my next comment is, it is because of all the junk you eat. My judgment, though may be incorrect, is based on the fact that most of these staff members are single parents, live in inner cities, and have a total commute time of two hours to and from work. Not to mention, some of them have more than one job. However, these people are being made to feel guilty about something that is totally out their control. In most instances, their wages aren’t even enough to meet up with their rents and utilities bills. Fast food comes handy in such instance where one can spend ten dollars and get ten cheeseburgers to feed a family of three to five versus going to the grocery store where each healthy ingredient is almost equivalent to the price of the entire dinner comprising of fast food. People fall back on fast food because it is cheap. Zinczenko explains that his parents were split up and that he had to live with his mother who worked long hours just to make the monthly bills. â€Å"Lunch and dinner, for me, was a daily choice between McDonald’s, Taco Bell, Kentucky Fried Chicken or Pizza Hut. † (Zinczenko 391). In Zinczenko’s case, his lifestyle is altered because fast food is his only option since his family is dysfunctional. His single mother has to work very hard to pay bills and provide him a meal. It doesn’t matter the kind of meal. A meal is a meal, especially for someone who doesn’t have the time to prepare a home cooked meal. The people afflicted with fast food related obesity are not to blame for what they eat because they have very little or no options regarding what they eat due to all of the above reasons. However, to Balko’s point, while people may not have the option about what they eat, they have the option to control how they eat. Zinczenko states in his essay that fast food is â€Å"the only available options for an American kid to get an affordable meal†, and so, he urges his readers not to â€Å"blame the Eater† (392). But as with Zinczenko, we are well aware of the role fast food play in our lives. We understand that, though fast may be one, or the only available meal choice that we have, the way we eat can help us determine the role these foods play in our lives. Zinczenko supports his argument about the role food play in his life by giving information about his pre-college weight. â€Å"By age 15, I had packed 212 pounds of torpid tallow on my once lanky 5-foot-10 frame† (392). Even Zinczenko believes that, consumers are as equally responsible for the way they eat. However, he maintains his argument that the fast food companies bare the greater responsibility. In conclusion, both the eater and the producer are responsible for fast food related obesity, but I believe that the fast industries should bare the greater responsibility. Fast food companies must provide their consumers with proper food labels that enable them to make inform decision about what they eat. Label should not be falsified or misleading, like in the example giving by Zinczenko about the misleading label on the â€Å"chicken salad† (393). He refers to the salad as not healthy and that it is a caloric death- trap aimed at eaters who will not suspect it. Although Balko makes some really good points, his objectives seem to me as a means to an end. Zinczenko cautions that there are few or no alternatives to what we eat and that things have to change. Balko cautions that allowing food regulations for labels means letting the government between you and your waistline. In either case, we as a people have a responsibility to consider what and how we eat.

Monday, October 14, 2019

Dysbiosis and the Risk of Developing Mental Disorders

Dysbiosis and the Risk of Developing Mental Disorders Topic: Dysbiosis increases the risk of developing mental disorders       Dysbiosis is recognized as a microbial imbalance on or inside the body like a damaged microbiota. It is the most generally known in gastrointestinal tract but also can take place everywhere with a defined mucous membrane such as skin flora and gut flora. The potential causes of dysbiosis are mainly induced from contaminated food or water and improper antibiotics dosage. For instance, taking antibiotics kills the sensitive bacteria but the resistant germs can also be left to grow and breed. There is significant information to show the dysbiosis of the gut microbiota is connected with the pathogenesis of extra intestinal disorders. The roles of gut microbiome in establishing brain development and neurological function, and the mechanisms that the gut microbiotic of dysbiosis contributing to two example of mental health disorders, depression and Irritable bowel syndrome are outlined. Figure 1. The bidirectional communication system between CNS and the gastrointestinal tract (Gut-Brain-Axis). The brain is able to influence the intestinal microbiota while the microbiota is capable to affect the brain development and functions, resulting in mental disorders. The gut microbiota correlates with central nervous system which is vital for the brain development and functions. The bidirectional communication system between CNS and the gastrointestinal tract is called Gut-Brain Axis since the CNS is capable of constantly altering the gut permeability, microbiota configuration and secretion via the initiation of the hypothalamus pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis [7]. Moreover, Gut-brain-Axis is responsible to coordinate gut actions in order to associate the emotional centres of the brain with external intestinal functions like immune initiation, intestinal permeability and entero-endocrine signalling. Furthermore, the gut microbiota is involved in maintaining an equilibrium of homeostasis and providing protection against outer pathogens by activating the integration of defensive mucus lining of the gut epithelial cells. When the microbial gut is lake of balance, dysbiosis would be occurred and inflammation is prompted by intestinal permeability change and damaged gut barrier with the access of external antigens such as toxins, microorganisms and gluten to the interior. Additionally, a number of pathogens of diseases are expressed to interrupt the epithelial tight junctions to increase the intestinal permeability and lead to leaky gut so as to launch autoimmunological responses and induce neurological disorders like the depressive-like behaviours by altering gut microbiota composition. Firstly, an example of the mental health disorder is Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) which is known as depression by minimum two weeks of low mood followed with declining of self-esteem. Depression-like alternations is examined in germ-free mice and indicated that the increased density of pro-inflammatory cytokines which is expressed in MDD  46 is resulted from the linkage with gut microbiome. Moreover, concentrations of serum antibodies countered to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from gram-negative enterobacteria are greater in patients with MDD than in control individuals  51. Thus, it would induce stress-related disorders by increasing gut permeability and bacterial translocation  22,  52.  Also, the altered microbiota configuration is suggested to promote depressive states and dysbiosis. Figure 2. The comparison of a healthy gut and a leaky gut. Under homeostasis, the intestinal epithelial linked with the tight function to inhibit gut microorganisms, food particles etc. to go across the barrier. There is normal intestinal permeability and intact intestinal barrier. When a leaky gut is occurred, the barrier is damaged and increase the intestinal permeability, allowing the undesired passage for the pathogen, gluten, casein etc, which can induce an inflammation and results in mental disorders. The major neuroendocrine mechanism in human is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the activation of this axis stimulate various psychological stressors [130]. Additionally, the cells transfer the signaling molecules into gut lumen in the lamina propria which is under the regulation of the CNS, resulting in alternations in gastrointestinal motility and secretion and also the intestinal permeability in order to change the GIT system in which the bacteria existed in [2]. The mechanism of MDD linked with microbiota is evaluated by comparing the healthy gut and the gut with disease. From figure 2, the intestinal epithelium which is the largest mucosal surface in human body. It is used to provide an inhibition between the host and the environment and it is crucial in establishing the equilibrium of the organism with healthy condition. Under a healthy state, the intestinal epithelial associated with the tight function which prevent the undigested food particles from passing through and the absorptive cells fit close together with the mucus layer which can significantly act as a barrier to bacteria and antigens from outside. The reign of symbiotic microbiota, an intestinal barrier integrity is maintained and used to control pathobiont overgrowth inside the intestinal area and the function of a healthy gut establish the symbiotic relationship between CNS and gut microbiota. However, in the condition of pathological stress or disease, the epithelial barrier is damaged and the gaps between the cells are wider which leads to the increase of the intestinal permeability. Intestinal dysbiosis can negatively affect gut physiology causing improper brain-gut axis signalling and leading effects for CNS functions and disease conditions. Furthermore, stress linked with CNS can also influence gut function and contribute distress of the microbiota. An alternation in the balance of symbionts and pathobionts leads to pathobiont overgrowth and results in dysbiosis, allowing the channel for the translocation of pathological bacteria across the mucosal lining to sites where gives rise to the activation of an immune response recognized by increasing production of peripheral pro-inflammatory mediators and eventually the CNS, inflammation is initiated. When the inflammatory activity is launched, macrophages leads to pathogenesis through unsuitable responses to enteric microbial activation, incapable elimination of microbes from host organisms, defective pro-inflammatory, anti-inflammatory responses and also deficit of barriers role. This contributes to the greater translocation of pathogenic bacterial constituent from the intestinal mucosa to the systemic circuits where they can stimulate innate immunity and generate pro-inflammatory cytokines, causing the systemic inflammation with an abnormal gut. Therefore, a leaky gut or impaired intestinal permeability is associated the GI dysfunction and the impaired CNS function to induce psychiatric disorders such as depression. The mechanism shows that depression affect the composition and stability of gut microbiota and also the bidirectional communication between microbiota and the CNS arouse stress reactions. Figure 3. Pathways involved in communication between the gut microbiota and the brain including cortisol, cytokines, vagus and enteric nervous system. The brain requires theses pathways to alter the composition of gut microbiota with the state of stress-related disorders. The HPA axis control cortisol secretion and cortisol influence immune cells involving cytokine secretion. Cortisol changes gut permeability and barrier function and hence alter the gut microbiota composition. Moreover, the gut microbiota and probiotics can change the concentrations of circulating cytokines and this affects brain functions. The vagus nerve and regulation of tryptophan contribute to the influence of the gut microbiota to the brain. Also, SCFAs are neuroactive bacteria metabolites that regulate brain and behaviour. Secondly, another example of mental disorder is Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) which is a stress-related disorder linked with Gut-Brain- Axis in order to alter gut microbiota characterization (Carroll et al., 2011) and increase intestinal permeability (Dunlop et al., 2006). Moreover, depression or anxiety anticipate IBS symptoms in the high frequency of patients and psychological characterization incline earlier healthy people to cause IBS after gastroenteritis.[27][28] (Singh et al., 2012). These stress responses in the body associate with the HPA axis and the sympathetic nervous system to perform abnormally in IBS patients. It has a similar mechanism to the MDD and also adapt the HPA axis which modulate cortisol secretion and the cortisol influence immune cells involving cytokine secretion. Cortisol can alter gut permeability and permit bacteria or bacterial antigens to go through the epithelial barrier and this leads to mucosal immune response stimulated which can change the microbiome composition 131]. It is also indicated that a subtle impact on bacterial flora giving rise to greater adhesion and bacterial translocation owing to higher barrier permeability. Significantly, chronic stress damages the intestinal barrier, causing it leaky and raising the circulating level of immune modulator which is the element of bacterial cell wall called lipopolysaccharide (LPS) [134]. LPS transposition can switch on the inherited immune system and advancement of inflammatory actions to generate an autoimmune reaction such as the stress-related disorders. Additionally, the mechanism involves several molecules in the brain-gut-microbiota axis to induce physiological functions. The tryptophan metabolism is affected to brain function regulation which is induced by the gut microbiota (reviewed by OMahony ). Additionally, tryptophan is a crucial amino acid which is used to go through the blood brain barrier and involve in serotonin synthesis when the tryptophan is consumed from the gut. Furthermore, in the condition of pathogenic microbial infections in the gut, this pathway is triggered and the tryptophan from the body stock is depleted. Hence, this causes the deficiency of serotonin supply and result in IBS. Besides, the Short Chain Fatty Acids are known as butyrate, acetate, and propionate which act as signalling molecules and possess immunomodulatory characteristics. They cooperate with nerve cells by activating the sympathetic and autonomic nervous system through G-protein-coupled receptors.195 Furthermore, they can go across the Blood brain barrier to modulate brain development and behaviour19 6,  197,  198 in order to establish the IBS development.199 Besides, the serotonin, 5-HT, is a signalling molecule in the brain-gut-microbiota axis to regulate the intestinal permeability and use to stimulate sensory nerve to signal the CNS. Hence, this pathway involving different signalling molecules correlated with microbiota and initiated the leaky gut is significantly increase the risk of developing neurological disorder by dysbiosis. In conclusion, dysbiosis increases the risk of developing mental disorders such as the Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Both disorders linked with microbiota and require the similar pathways. Dysbiosis with an impaired microbiota correlated with the CNS significantly. The Gut-brain-Axis is responsible to coordinate gut actions and deliver the stress response to the brain by the HPA axis in order to increase the intestinal permeability and damage the intestinal barrier. Followed by several signalling molecules such as tryptophan, 5-HT and SCFAs, the resulted leaky gut and alternation in microbiota composition would contribute to the depressive like behaviours and other neurological disorders. For the future perspective, the mental illness induced by the dysbiosis with altered microbiota can be monitored with appropriate probiotic supplementation and change of metabolomics condition in order to influence the essential changes with both gastrointestina l and neurological significance. References: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dr_Ajit_Thakur/publication/260425062_Gut-microbiota_and_mental_health_Current_and_future_perspectives/links/00b7d53134a2bcb221000000.pdf http://www.nature.com/mp/journal/v21/n6/full/mp201650a.html https://jphysiolanthropol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40101-015-0061-7 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166223613000088 http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/16512235.2017.1281916 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nmo.12378/full http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0889159115001105 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095816691400175X https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4879184/ https://www.jscimedcentral.com/Pharmacology/pharmacology-2-1016.php http://www.medscape.org/viewarticle/855131 https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/psychobiotics-a-promise-for-neurodevelopmental-therapy-2329-8901-1000146.php?aid=72039view=mobile http://www.yeastinfection.org/anxiety-depression-candida-connection/ http://www.healthygutbugs.com/probiotics-next-big-anti-anxiety-remedy/ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4315779/

Sunday, October 13, 2019

The Client :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I read the book The Client by John Grisham. This book was about a boy, named Mark Sway, and is younger brother who witnessed a horrible suicide. Before the suicide, he talked to the lawyer who was about to kill himself. This lawyer, Jerome Clifford, had a client in New Orleans who had murdered a United States Senator and hid the body at the lawyer?s house. Right before he shot himself, the lawyer told Mark everything about his Mafia connected client. When the lawyer took his life, the younger brother went into shock, but Mark realized that he had to tell the police something. He didn?t want to tell them that he knew the whereabouts of the body for fear of the Mafia coming after him. He just decided to tell the police that he and his brother were in the woods and they found the car and the lawyer?s body, not knowing anything about it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Later, the police found Mark?s fingerprints around and inside the car, where he had been talking to the lawyer, and even on the gun. FBI agents and local police all suspected that Mark knew more than he was telling them. Mark hired a lawyer, Reggie Love, to help him get out of the mess he put himself in. A couple newspapers got word of the fingerprints of the boy and they quickly made up stories that Mark was now suspected to be the killer of the lawyer. Mark realized that the best thing to do would be to let the police know where the body was and tell them the truth about everything he knew. The next day, he and Reggie had an appointment with some FBI agents. On the way to his lawyer?s office, Mark ran into a man obviously in the Mafia. He threatened to kill him if he told anyone about what Jerome Clifford had told him. He knew the man wasn?t joking because he was holding a switchblade to his face at the time. By this time, Mark no longer wants to talk to the aut horities. Through all this, Mark?s mother was still living at the hospital, worrying about her youngest son, who was still in shock and comatose.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Eventually, the FBI gets annoyed with waiting for Mark. They decide that he should be put in a juvenile home until he agrees to talk to them. Mark knows that he should not be in the home.

Saturday, October 12, 2019

The Shadow on the Stone by Hardy Essay -- Shadow Stone Hardy Essays

The Shadow on the Stone by Hardy A man stands in front of a druid stone just as a reader stares at a brooding poem of love lost and fonder days remembered. â€Å"The Shadow on the Stone† gives insight into the psyche of Hardy after his first wife’s death, yet how does someone come to such a conclusion? Through the understanding of the strategic usage of several literary and poetic devices his audience is able to discern their pertinence to the comprehension of Hardy’s message. This poem is not necessarily difficult for the average reader to grasp, its value as a work of poetic prowess is found in the power of impression. â€Å"The Shadow on the Stone† forms a relationship with the reader, despite wielding fairly simple poetic structure, by stimulating several unifying characteristics which thread many readers together such as; hardship, regret, and loss. Hardy appears deliberate in constructing this poem in a consistent manner. The lines are all placed in the same staggered fashion in all three stanzas. This method is compelling due to the fact that he may be attempting to stress the constant variation of life through the structure of the poem. The persona of the poem certainly tastes a wide variety of emotions, yet these emotions that are inevitably going to reoccur in the natural course of lifetime. This is reiterated through the certainty readers have that the individual stanzas are diverse, and will occur in the following stanzas as if to illustrate the prevalence of life’s tribulations no matter how random they may feel. This allows the reader to relate to the vulnerable human quality of the poem, no doubt creating a more attentive reader. It is no secret that people take some amount of pleasure or interest in someone e... ...d should that not be enough Hardy arranged the poem a relatively small package as to not scare a depressed reader. This poem manages to reach out on a personal level even though the method is transparent which validates the authenticity of Hardy’s poetic skill. He builds an image through the use of simple poetic devices to lull the reader into an easy read and proceeds to squeeze the reader’s sore spots to capture their attention. Hardy’s poem reads in the same manner it must have been written, in self loathing. Hardy was a tragic figure living within a tragic poem, this work accurately portrays Hardy in his futile attempt to understand and deal with the unavoidable trials of his life. He uses this struggle as a common thread to effectively tie his audience together, capturing the readers as they marinade in one of the defining qualities of life: regret.

Friday, October 11, 2019

Essay on the Enlightenment

Enlightenment Essay The Enlightenment may have happened a long time ago, ideas of the thinkers of that era have shaped and influenced ideas of today. Thinkers like Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Locke may have directly influenced the government of the United States. Montesquieu argued that the best government would be one whose power was balanced between three groups of officials. He thought England – which divided power between the king (who enforced laws), Parliament (which made laws), and the judges of the English courts (who interpreted laws) – was a good model of this. Separation of powers† was what Montesquieu called this idea of dividing government power into three branches. He thought it most important to create separate branches of government with equal but different powers. Because this, the government would never place too much power with one individual or group of individuals. He wrote, â€Å"When the [law making] and [law enforcement] powers ar e united in the same person†¦ there can be no liberty. † Montesquieu said each branch of government could limit the power of the other two branches.Therefore, no branch of the government could threaten the freedom of the people. His ideas about separation of powers became the basis for the United States Constitution. Voltaire was a French essayist, novelist, poet, and political reformer, just to name a few things. He advocated Religious and social tolerance, which are two things our own government believes in. Voltaire was a proponent of personal liberty and freedom of speech, he said the famous statement â€Å"I disagree with what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it. Freedom of speech is the first amendment in our constitution, and the fourth amendment is the right to personal liberty. One of his more controversial beliefs was the separation of church and state, which we belief in today. This belief was one of the beliefs that landed Voltaire in prison, and ultimately exile. The Social Contract was one of Rosseau’s most important ideas. Rousseau believed that society and government created a social contract where their goals were freedom and benefit to the public.Government’s existence depended on the will of the people. The social order was based on general will, a shared belief in a common set of interest. He believed that in a democracy, the general will of the democratic people, expressed in the way of a majority vote, to make all the decisions. The general will was also a form of freedom, and the purpose of law was to combine the general will with the desires of the people. These ideas on democracy, general will, and freedom are found in our own government today.Locke was one of the most influential philosophers of the Enlightenment. He believed that bâ€Å"y nature men are free, and that God made it so people need a leader. He argued people have rights. Those rights include right to life, liberty, and property. He used this claim to promote the idea of the social contract, so people can enjoy there right to comfortably enjoy there lives, liberty, and property. Locke also said that governments existed to protect the people and promote public good so governments who don’t do that should be replaced  with new governments.He said people had a right to revolution. Locke also denied the idea of divine right. All these ideas are found in the constitution. The right to revolution was especially important to the colonists, because they believed the British government was not a good one, so they wanted to replace it with their own new form of government. It was a time of absolute monarchies and tyranny in Europe. The US constitution was a reaction to that, a very republican, representative constitution.Also, it was a time when people were persecuted or even exiled, for having a religious belief other than the one of the government, the constitution reacted to that. It’s als o federalist because the US at the time was very decentralized in terms of communities, people wanted to retain self-governance, rather than hand it off to far away England. Many other things in the constitution were different than the beliefs of the governments in Europe, and the colonists wanted to change that. That is how the constitution reflects the times it was written in.

Thursday, October 10, 2019

How I met myself Essay

The English language is a thriving language. It is the window of various disciplines and knowledge. If you want to know more about the world, learn English†¦ English is a fun language, which inspire people from all walks of life. This language binds people from all over the world. So, don’t be afraid of this language. It is a language of love, peace and humility. Monday, November 25, 2013 Form 3 Novel- How I Met Myself It’s such an overdue post, PMR has just passed and here I am posting this long awaited entry on the Form 3 novel, How I Met Myself. This novel is all about finding your own ghost or doppelganger and answers the questions of â€Å"What If† and â€Å"If Only†. I found this novel as an interesting piece of literature as it questions the pasts and brings back the future, and it will definitely serves as a medium of intellectual discussions among students and teachers. By the time students reach the Third Form, I realize that students need to be stimulated and encouraged to participate well in group and class discussions as some students fail to give responses due to lack of stimulating readings and low self esteem. The idea now in Malaysia, is to let students take charge of the whole learning process, encourage them to think critically and creatively and teachers should take a back seat. Many times, teachers are deemed to be responsible on students’ learning p rocess but the reality is students should be held responsible for their own learning as well. In this entry, I’m sharing with you, some useful notes on this Form Three novel. Based on the novel â€Å" How I Met Myself† by David A. Hill, the theme that can be found is † Love †. This theme is significant in this novel as it revolves around John Taylor and his family. This can be seen from the way they take care of each other and stood by their spouses through difficult times in life. â€Å" Love† is definitely around John Taylor’s family as Andrea supports her husband through out the journey of their life. Never once in her life, that Andrea does not believe in John Taylor and his doppelganger. She is a symbol of a loyal and loving wife, who stands by her man, no matter what is happening to him. Finally, â€Å" love† is seen through  John Taylor. He is a responsible father and husband, even if he neglects his family for a while when he is carried away in finding his doppelganger. John Taylor is a character with full of love and care, he loves his wife unconditionally. In conclusion, â€Å" love† is widely seen in this novel through the characters of John Taylor and Andrea, his wife. They are the symbols of eternal love in these modern days, where love is not a language easily understood.

Wednesday, October 9, 2019

Auditing in business world Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Auditing in business world - Essay Example This paper aims to discuss whether it is just to involve or blame the auditors for companies' failures or bankruptcies or even fraudulent activities. Are auditors really part of the blame-game or is the public just reacting on what they perceive as the auditor's failure to see and to report these bankruptcies and fraudulent activities' Is there really a gap on what the public expects auditors to do and to report and what the auditors are really tasked to do' According to Robert K. Elliot (1998), the purpose of the audit is to provide assurance that the investors and the stakeholders can rely on the information presented by management in the company's financial statements and that they are not taking on undue financial risk when they invest in such a company. The auditors' report, the ultimate output of the external auditor, is meant to communicate the various claims of the auditors. These claims are: that the auditors have complied with the required auditing standards, that they are independent of the company they are auditing and that they are stating that the balances of the company (as presented in the accompanying financial statements) are free from material misstatements and are thus, reliable to the outside readers and users. The website, www.abrema.net, defined expectations gap in auditing as "the gap between the auditors' actual standard of performance and the various public expectations of auditors' performance (as opposed to their required standard of performance)". The same website enumerated the various expectations of the public. These expectations include (but are not limited to the following): (1) that the auditors should have "prime responsibility for the financial statements" that they audited; (2) that auditors 'certify' the financial statements; (3) that when auditors provide a clean opinion, this means that the financial figures are accurate and free from error; (4) that auditors "should give early warning about the possibility of business failure; and (5) that auditors are "supposed to detect fraud". Another definition, according to Stanley Martens, is that this gap is "the difference between (1) what the public and other financial statement users perceive auditors' responsibilities to be and (2) what auditors believe their responsibilities entail" (2001). Mr. Martens went on to state that this expectation gap has been in existence for several years (even decades) now and may have stemmed from previous "well-publicized hearings" in a previous fraud case. Still another definition from Marianne Ojo is that is the expectations gap is "the difference between what users of financial statements, the general public perceive an audit to be and what the audit profession claim is expected of them in conducting an audit" (2006). In fact, there is also a distinction between the expectations of the audit profession of an external audit and the perception of the external auditor. Thus, even within the accounting profession, such an expectation gap exists. Components of Expectation Gap Www.abrema.net further divides expectations gap into the "requirements gap", where there is a difference between the actual performance of the auditor and what is required by the "current standards of the society" and the "feasibility gap", is the difference between "society's required standard

Tuesday, October 8, 2019

Evaluating Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Evaluating - Essay Example As of December 2009, it had about not less than 2,200 retail branches in the United Kingdom through its subsidiaries, not less than 220 branches and network of business banking offices in Northern Ireland and Republic of Ireland and not less than 1500 retail banking offices in the United States (Reuters.com, 2009a). This paper seeks to evaluate RBS using relevant valuation models based on the company’s annual reports and other external information. This paper will analyze first the historical performance of the RBS for the past five years. This will be followed by a forecast of the short-term performance of RBS by constructing different scenarios for various competitive positions taking into consideration the current industry and company’s strategic position. This will then value cash flows beyond the forecast horizon using a continuing value by discounting cash flows to their present value using an estimated cost of capital by CAPM model. Calculation and interpretation of the results will come afterward within the strategic changes (Pearce II, Jr. and Robinson, 2004) envisioned for the firm and the required decisions that need to be taken to maximize the value of the company. Analysis of historical performance of RBS is accomplished by studying its revenue growth for the past five years or from 2005 to 2009 by understanding its profitability and efficiency, connecting the results with its liquidity and financial and financial advantage (Helfert, 2001). The same information need to be related further to other external information including that of its competitors from the financial services industry and other macroeconomic variables. The summary of the historical performance of RBS can be found in Appendix A. RBS revenues, in the form of interest income because of its nature business, showed an average annual growth of 13% for the past five years

Monday, October 7, 2019

Information system Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Information system - Essay Example tions that means they have to as well somehow facilitate all remote office workers and team members, internationally, to work together on the similar shared files as well as data at the same time. However, in view of the fact that business data file sizes and data storage needs are augmenting every year, as well as the well-organized sharing of files all through distributed business enterprises over the wide area network (WAN) has turned out to be an exceptional task. Additionally, the difficulty is that gigabytes of data can be shared over a local area network (LAN) through standard file server technology, they cannot be shared all trough remote offices linked over the WAN. On the other hand, standard file server protocols offer unacceptably slow response times to open and write files over the WAN in addition to this forces remote office IT managers to build a number of unappealing alternatives. Thus, in this scenario IT managers and network users have to either live with reduced pr oductivity because of poor network performance at remote offices or they have to make use of replication systems that waste business network storage as well as slow down worldwide collaboration (Dorairajan; Nash; Forouzan and Fegan). Dorairajan (2004) stated that a new class of product recognized as wide-area file services (WAFS) has demonstrated extraordinary outcomes in resolving the problem of remote office sharing and collaboration intended for distributed organizations and businesses like that Oliyday Hotels. Additionally, the wide-area file services (WAFS) allow corporations with remote offices to make use of the WAN to share files like if it were a virtual LAN, facilitating real-time, read/write access to shared business files in addition to assure the coherency and consistency of the entire business file data (Dorairajan; Forouzan and Fegan). In addition, the majority of the successful WAFS systems tackle inherent WAN file sharing problems through a multi-layered technology

Sunday, October 6, 2019

The Great Depression Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

The Great Depression - Essay Example As the research declares most farmers and companies hence began to incur losses and default on their loans. The situation got worse after some parts of the nation were hit by a terrible drought. America was also operating on a laissez-faire economic policy that did not impose any regulations on businesses. Most companies paid low wages to their workers leading to uneven wealth distribution. The above factors coupled with the fact that Europe was also going through the depression led to an increased decline in the market for American products. It led to the closure of businesses, increase in debts, massive unemployment, and foreclosure of banks. The final blow resulted from the collapse of the New York stock market that led to the loss of billions of dollars of investor money. As the report stresses President Hoover tried to end the economic crisis by encouraging cooperation between government and business, establishing government agencies, fostering labor harmony and attempting to balance the budget. He refused to involve the federal government in manipulating the currency, fixing prices or controlling businesses. He also refused to use federal money to give direct aid citizens hence operated on the principle of rugged individualism. President Franklin Roosevelt, on the other hand, held a much more liberal philosophy as he believed the federal government was required to step in and give direct aid to its people.

Saturday, October 5, 2019

Argument from moral equivalence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Argument from moral equivalence - Essay Example Once there cannot be condemnation, then it cannot be said that a given cultural sect, morals or values are better or worse. As far as cultural relativism is concerned, it is important for people not to compare their cultural differences with what prevails in other cultures but learn to be tolerant towards all other cultures. In reference to the video, which clearly shows distaste for the Iranian culture of Sharia Law, it could be said that this claim is valid. The video is indeed relevant to the topic of cultural relativism because it outlines the extent to which social and human right groups come together to condemn some of the core values and codes in given cultures. As much as possible, these human right and social groups would want the fundamental human rights of people to be upheld while going about cultural diversity. To this extent, any cultures’ moral values and codes that defeat the ideas of fundamental human rights, such as making a woman suffer death for the offence of adultery is seen as worse. In conclusion therefore, it can be said that the world has come to such a time when cultural relativism is seen as

Friday, October 4, 2019

Psycoanalitical Criticism Essay Example for Free

Psycoanalitical Criticism Essay This type of criticism analyses the personalities of various characters in the story. It follows many of the ideas first developed by psychologist Sigmund Freud in the nineteenth century. Psychoanalytic criticism interprets the text in terms of the characters’ thoughts and interpretations on various issues in the novel. When a reader utilizes this type of criticism, they seek to go past the literal events in the story and analyse why certain incidents occurred throughout the novel. According to Sigmund Freud, the three main personalities that a person has are: the id, superego and ego. Id—an individual’s id is their desire for necessities. This is an irrational part of our mind that always tries to fulfill our wants instinctively. Superego—this refers to an individual’s conscience. This part of an individual is responsible for the moral principles that one exhibits. This personality is the exact opposite of id; it attempts to make decisions rationally and carefully. Ego—this is the most important personality that a person has. It is responsible for finding a balance between an individual’s superego and their id. This is a logical part of the mind that is driven by the reality principle. If a person’s ego is in check, they can make beneficial decisions in their lives. Freud believes that that all humans have these three personalities within them. However, all of us portray each of them in vaying quantities. For example, a person may exhibit their id more than their superego. The decisions of this person will be highly irrational and based mainly on their desires. Another concept that How does the relationship between Okonkwo and Unoka demonstrate the characteristics of the Oedipus complex? How has the relationship between Oedipus and his father affected the relationship between Oedipus and his son, Nwoye? How does an imbalance of Okonkwo’s id and superego contribute to how he deals with the â€Å"white men† in the story? Anonymous. (2004). An Introduction to Psychoanalytic Criticism. ReadWriteThink. NCTE/IRA, 6 May 2012. This article argues that there are three different parts that form an individual’s personality: the id, the ego and the superego. The author agrees with Freud’s views on human personalities and describes how they can impact the overall plot of a literary work. The article explains that a person’s id shows their impulse to get basic necessities. In contrast, the superego is our conscience and controls the moral aspects of our daily lives. The author indicates that the most important part of our qualities is our ego because it determines the balance that we have between our superego and our id. The author acknowledges that all humans contain varying degrees of each of the three personalities; and this is what leads us to act the way we do.

Thursday, October 3, 2019

A Case Study Of The Code Switching Patterns English Language Essay

A Case Study Of The Code Switching Patterns English Language Essay The study investigates the use of Lithuanian and English and code-switching between the two in a family of Lithuanian-English bilinguals living in London. The data was collected by means of recording in the family home. The recording was then transcribed and analysed, allowing me to identify a number of features of the features of the language choice and code-switching patterns. These included convergence or divergence from the viewpoint of the previous speaker, lexical need, translation to allow for greater fluency in the conversation, trigger words and the perceived identity of the speaker. I conclude from these observations that code-switching can be seen as a versatile and fluid phenomenon which allows the speaker greater freedom of expression and performs a number of functions, both social and pragmatic. The speakers use their languages to This dissertation looks at bilingual conversations between family members in a family environment. The main focus of the work is the strategic use of code-switching. My particular interest is on how different members of the family use code-switching in order to express their national and individual identity and how this usage reflects their attitudes towards their languages. Theoretical background to the study: Bilingualism A fact frequently mentioned in bilingual studies is that over half the world is bilingual (Hoffmann 1991). However, patterns of individual language use within bilingual communities are diverse and it has been claimed that bilingualism is more common in unilingual countries (Mackey 1970). Lithuania has a high level of bilingualism with over 70% of the residents being multilingual (http://www.stat.gov.lt/en/). Language use is influenced by social circumstances, especially with regard to the communicative situation in which the language is employed. Bilingualism, however, is not automatically sustained without regular exchanges in the pertinent languages. (Ervin-Tripp and Reyes 2005). Languages amongst second generation immigrants seem to be maintained in strong correlation to the amount of exposure within the home. Mackey Bilingualism Reader page 35. The level of language proficiency and performance are affected by the intention of the speaker and the kinds of actions taken in order to satisfy that function. The attitude of a speaker towards his or her language is a major factor in their language behaviour. A speaker who feels ashamed of his or her level of a particular language may use this less frequently or only use it in certain company. Certain languages carry political associations and can be unpopular for this reason -for example, Russian was unpopular in many countries in the Soviet Union. Bilingual immigrant children may associate their second language with that of their friends and social life and have a more positive outlook towards this (Lambert et al 1958 see Bilingualism a reader for ref). Code-switching Code-switching is remarkably common in language contact situations, especially within plurilingual societies. The majority of code-switching studies have concentrated on the social motivation behind the switches (e.g. Myers-Scotton 1993) in addition to grammatical or syntactical constraints or psychological mechanism (e.g. Grosjean 2001). Alternation between languages seems to depend on a number of factors., including the conversational topic of the speaker, the person to whom he or she is speaking and the level of tension which he or she feels when taking part in the conversation for example when very tired, nervous, or angry. Myers Scotton (1993) amongst others has pointed out that bilinguals use code-switching in order to make the greatest use of their linguistic repertoire. For many bilinguals this is a part of their daily life. In multilingual societies this would take place in a variety of contexts, but in the UK this is most commonly found at home in a family environment. For this reason the study focuses on a family conversation. Age is a major factor for consideration in the study of language use within a family. For younger immigrants bilingualism can be a short process which can lead to the second language overtaking the first if home is the only environment in which the first language is utilised. (Tits 1959 see bilingualism reader for ref). The study of younger immigrants is specialised as their stability in their first language needs to be considered whereas with older immigrants their first language is far more fixed and stable. 1.1.2 Lithuania and the Lithuanian language According to the Office for National Statistics (www.statistics.gov.uk), an estimated 74,000 Lithuanians lived in the UK in 2010. Lithuania became independent from the Soviet Union in 1990 and became a member of NATO and the European Union in spring 2004. Since Lithuanian independence many changes have taken place and popular culture is highly influenced by Western Europe and the USA. An important change regarding language is that many young people are now able to speak English or another foreign language, and have little knowledge of the Russian language. In Soviet times the very large majority of the population was fluent in Russian. More than 70% of Lithuanians living in Lithuania in September 2012 are bi- or multilingual. (http://www.stat.gov.lt/en/) Russian is still the most widely spoken second language with English now the second. (Statistics Lithuania 2008). The total worldwide Lithuanian-speaking population is estimated at about 3,100,000 (2011, http://www.indexmundi.com/lithuania/demographics_profile.html), about 2.9 million native Lithuanian speakers in Lithuania and about 200,000 abroad (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_language). The Lithuanian language is a Baltic language which has been influenced by both Russian and Finnish, but retains many pure features of archaic Indo-European. The Russian language was particularly influential during the period of Soviet rule. Lithuanian is an inflectional language with seven cases and is gendered. The Lithuanian alphabet consists of 32 letters in the Latin alphabet using diacritical marks. There are two main dialects which differ significantly from each other: AukÃ…Â ¡taiÄ iÃ…Â ³ (AukÃ…Â ¡taitian, Highland Lithuanian) and Ã…Â ½emaiÄ iÃ…Â ³/Ã…Â ½emaitiu (Samogitian, Lowland Lithuanian). The family studied here speak standard or Highland Lithuanian. 1.1.3 Key terms Bilingualism Definitions of bilingualism vary greatly. Bloomfield (1933) describes it as: native-like control of two languages. However, this focus on the level of proficiency in each language does not refer to the use or function performed by the language. Definitions which are based on function take into account the fact that language is a communicative tool rather than an abstract entity. Weinreich (1953) describes bilingualism as: The practice of alternately using two languages. Els Oksaar (1983) takes function and proficiency into account in her definition of the ability of a person to use here and now two or more languages as a means of communication in most situations and to switch from one language to the other if necessary (p. 19). Hoffmann (1991) points out that bilingualism is relative, and although there have been many attempts to define it, none of these is equally valid. She suggests that a useful approach could be to form a bilingual profile for each individual, accounting for vari ables such as the language development and maintenance of the languages, their sequential relationship, the competence in each, functional aspects, linguistic features, attitudes and environmental circumstances. The term balanced bilingual is used to describe a speaker who has equal command of both languages. However, Fishman et al (1971) point out that this situation is rare. Bilinguals who are equally fluent in both languages (as measured by their facility and correctness overall) are rarely equally fluent in both languages about all possible topics; this phenomenon is invariably a reflection of the fact that societal allocation of functions is normally imbalanced and in complementary distribution rather than redundant (Fishman et al, 1971, in MacSwan, 1999: 30) . Code-switching Definitions of code-switching vary significantly between researchers. Code is generally used as a synonym of language, although there is some debate on this point, Jakobson distinguishing between the two terms, asserting that languages do not consist of codes, but rather contain them (Jakobson 1971). Some see code-switching as being the insertion of whole utterances in a non-dominant language between sentences (Dahl, Rice et al. 2010). Borrowing generally refers to the insertion of a word or phrase within a sentence while retaining the syntax of the matrix language. Code-mixing However, there is little evidence at present that there is a significant difference between these types, and many see the difference as best expressed in terms of a continuum (Clyne 2000). Jeanine Treffers-Daller (1994- linguistic c-s) points out that many researchers see a difference between instances of code-switching and transfer or interference both of these terms referring to the influence of one languag e on another. However, she argues that these can be seen as similar as they involve the occurrence of aspects of one language in a section of another language. In the current work, the term code-switching will be used in its broadest sense to refer to the use of two or more languages used within a conversation or utterance, whether this be inter- or intra-sententially, unless a particular term is used by another researcher cited here. Throughout this work I will refer to inter-sentential and intra-sentential code-switching switches which occur between sentences or within them respectively as originally defined by Polack (1980). Crossing (also language crossing or code-crossing) refers to the use of a language or variety which isnt generally thought to belong to the speaker (Rampton, 1997, in Auer 1998P. Auer (ed) 1997/98 Code-switching in Conversation: Language, Interaction and Identity (London: Routledge) Creolization is used here to mean the formation of a Creole language from the contact of a European language with a local language: http://oxforddictionaries.com Native speaker when used in this project refers to a person who has spoken the language in question from earliest childhood (http://oxforddictionaries.com). Rationale This is an ethnographic study using data obtained from naturally occurring speech of three bilinguals of differing levels of proficiency. The family were chosen as they are all first generation immigrants, bi- or tri-lingual and are integrated into British society while still retaining a sense of their Lithuanian identity through their visits to Lithuania and contact with Lithuanian friends and family. The mother, when collecting her son from school when he was about 5 years old, overheard him asking a friend: Did you know that I am half-Lithuanian? She then questioned him about why he thought he was only half Lithuanian when both his parents were Lithuanian. He answered that he was Lithuanian when he was at home because of his parents, but at school he was English because he spoke English there, and he knew he wasnt 100% Lithuanian, as he could not speak the language fluently. This biculturalism opens debate concerning the choice and use of language to broader issues such as identit y. Oksaar (1983) argues that an immigrants two languages usually perform distinct tasks and the distribution of the languages in relation to the cultural spheres may be a decisive factor for the immigrants degree of integration. This study aims to investigate how the level of proficiency in a language affects the code-switching patterns in this family and how the family members use their linguistic repertoire to express their identity as Lithuanian, English, or both. No attempt will be made in this work to examine grammatical restraints or features beyond a very basic level. Research Questions What are the language choices and code-switching patterns of the subjects in a family environment? Do the language choice and code-switching reflect on the proficiency level of the language used? What are the functional purposes of the code-switching? How are the individuals attitudes towards the two languages and their own identity reflected in their language behaviour? The first of these questions provides a general background on which the other questions are based. The second question relates the language choice and code-switching to the level of proficiency that the subjects have in the languages. Question 3 looks at the reasons behind the code-switching. Lastly, the final question examines if there is a relationship between the attitude of the individual and their language choices 1.4 Hypotheses That there is a correlation between the language choice and code-switching patterns of the speaker and their level of proficiency in that language. That the mother of the family, being the most balanced bilingual, will code-switch more frequently than the other two members of the family That the code-switching functions to facilitate understanding between all three members of the family and reflect their identities 1.5 Conclusion The structure of the paper is as follows: Chapter 1 has described the study and its aims. It has also given a brief summary of the key ideas which will be investigated and the terms which will be used throughout. The second chapter will review the literature which I feel is relevant and of interest to the present study. This will examine the perspectives on code-switching analysis, starting with the Rational Choice analysis. It will then examine Conversation Analysis as a tool for the analysis of code-switching data. Chapter 2 will also deal briefly with studies which look at the level of proficiency of the speakers and how this affects code-switching. The third chapter will describe the methodology used in the study including the research design issues and the positioning of the researcher. It will give an outline of the family background and history will then deal with the ethics, interviews and data collection which were carried out in order to conduct the research. A mention will also be made of the issues involved in data collection and the conventions used in the transcription as well as the methods used to analyse the data. Chapter 4 will look at the analysis of the data, dealing primarily with the research questions. It will examine the language choices of the subjects and how these choices reflect on the proficiency level of the participants in each language. It will then examine when the family code-switch when interacting and what the functional purposes of the code-switching appear to be. There will then be a discussion of how the language choices reflect the individuals attitudes towards the two languages. Chapter 5 concludes the study with a discussion of the implications of the findings and a summary of the research, looking at the limitations of the research and any further development required. Chapter 2 Review of relevant literature what about FAMILY studies and what is special about them? 2.1 Introduction QUOTATIONS ONE OR TWO PER PAGE In this chapter the literature concerned with the phenomenon of code-switching is examined to provide a conceptual framework. Studies have been carried out in this area from psycholinguistic, grammatical or sociolinguistic perspectives. This literature review will concentrate only on the sociolinguistic studies as these relate most closely to the research carried out. I will firstly consider the different perspectives on code-switching analysis Analyses based on the social connotations of the two languages and Conversation Analysis. I will then examine studies dealing with the level of proficiency of the speaker and how this affects code-switching practices. I will also briefly investigate studies of bilingual children before concluding by linking these studies to the study carried out here. The last forty or fifty years have seen a profusion of research carried out into reasons for code-switching and the different manifestations of the phenomenon. Studies in this area can be conducted for their own sake, in order to demonstrate characteristic features of a language. Code-switching is also studied in order to look at grammatical features or constraints across languages or for cognitive processing purposes. In addition code-switching can investigate the ways in which identities, be these individual or group, can be formed and demonstrated. It can also give additional meaning to an utterance which cannot be attributed to the meaning of the sum of individual words (Gardner-Chloros 2009) Code-switching is a conversational tool requiring competence pragmatically and grammatically (Koppe and Meisel 1995). Reasons why code-switching takes place are varied and complex. It is assumed to be related to the situational parameters of conversational topic, participant roles or the speech event itself (Auer 1995). However, intra-sentential code-switching may serve the purpose of emphasis, quoting another person, or to indicate a change in the participant addressed. It can also be used to indicate convergence or divergence from the previous participants statement (Zhu 2008). Inter-sentential code-switching can be used to fill gaps in lexical knowledge or to for emphasis (Zentella 1997) or to ask or answer rhetorical questions among other reasons. 2.2 Perspectives on code-switching analysis It is generally recognised that code-switching is meaningful from a social perspective. There are two broad schools of thought as to how this meaning is brought about. The first of these sees the choice of language as having a meaning, in terms of identity, views and values (Gumperz 1982, Myers-Scotton 1993). The other approach sees meaning as coming from the code-switching itself, that is, from within the conversation, rather than being reliant on external factors. This second approach concentrates on the sequences used and is generally studied using Conversational Analysis techniques. Increasingly researchers are favouring this second approach, as although it is widely acknowledged that social factors can play a significant role, this is not straightforward and cannot be assumed a priori (Cashman 2005, Williams 2005). 2.2.1 Analyses based on the social connotations of the two languages Language can be seen in terms of a we-code and they-code (Gumperz (1982). The we-code normally denotes a minority language linked to informal circumstances used by an in-group. The main community language, linked to formal circumstances, is a they-code. Typically in families in which the parents are immigrants to the UK, the parents will see their community language or mother tongue as the we-code and English as the they-code. Their children, however, brought up in the UK, are likely to feel that English is their we-code and to prefer to use this. Gumperz (1982) sees code-switching as meaningful from a social identity perspective. He carried out a study in Norway examining the use of Ranamal a local dialect, and Bokmal the standard language variety. These shared many similarities but were considered by speakers to be distinct. This distinction was important in order for the varieties to fulfil social functions. The local dialect was used with family, and to express local cultural identity, while the more standard variety was used in education and in the media. Many people switched between these two varieties depending on the topic of the conversation for example, an enquiry about family might be made in Ranamal, while Bokmal might be used while discussing business. Zhu Hua (2008) points out that a large body of evidence now indicates that there is no simple, one-to-one association between language and social values (p.1800) In an investigation into diasporic Chinese families in the UK, she examined the connection between social communication and socio-cultural values, focusing on code-switching between generations in conflict talk situations in which the speakers adopt different opinions on a subject. There appeared to be strategic language choices and positioning by the speakers. It appeared that code-switching functioned to focus the interactions between the speakers particularly when negotiating power relationships. Speakers showed convergence or divergence with the previous speakers view depending on their language choice speakers answering in the language in which they were addressed were is likely to be showing convergence. Investigations into non-Western code-switching have found evidence refuting the idea of different languages being associated with different groups. Stroud (1998) looked at the use of Tok Pisin, a national language, and Taiap, spoken by a tiny minority. It was found that no particular domain, subject or speech variety was spoken about in one language only. Rational choice analyses start from the basic standpoint of Gumperz (1982). The Markedness Model of Myers-Scotton (1993) makes the assumption that one language variety is always unmarked in any situation and that social norms act as constraints to speakers. She studied African urban communities and saw a distinction between the theories of allocation, where language behaviour is affected by the structure of society, and interaction, in which a person makes a rational selection to achieve a specific purpose. The mother tongue of the Kenyans studied was used with others of the same ethnic background and appeared to be important in terms of identity. It was also used for assistance from other members of the same group. English was used at home by those more affluent economically as it was assumed that this would help the children with their school education. The markedness idea is further developed in the Rational Choice Model (Myers-Scotton and Bolonyai 2001), which asserts that an unm arked choice is one in which the speaker chooses his or her language according to the conventions of the social norms. These norms can dictate that code-switching is in itself the choice which is unmarked. The Markedness Model appears to regard monolingualism as the starting point or norm and disregards variation between languages (Blommaert and Meeuwis 1998). The idea of strategic code-switching is also criticised as many see code-switching as an unconscious occurrence (Woolard 2004). This Rational Choice Model was employed by Alfaraz (2009) in a study of the use of Spanish and English in the Catholic mass. Quantitative analysis revealed a more frequent use of English than Spanish during the service, making English apparently the unmarked choice. On closer analysis, however, it could be seen that Spanish was used for the ritualistic areas of the service, making this the unmarked choice. Alfaraz asserted that pragmatic meaning was not conveyed though the directionality of switching in the data. Instead, code-switching seemed to be used to emphasise contextual information equivalent to what in monolingual settings is conveyed through prosody or other syntactic or lexical processes (Gumperz 1982 p.98). An example of this is in the use of pauses, which when between code-switched passages were found to be almost two seconds shorter than those between monolingual passages in the data, pointing towards the switching being used as a reinforcement of the effect of the paus e. The Rational Choice Model assumes that choices are made between codes according to external values. However, more recent thinking about how meanings can be interpreted has asserted that they can be interpreted from the conversation itself without the necessity of relating to external norms. Li Wei (1998) argues that code-switching can be used to show the authoritative level of the speaker and their preference linguistically. 2.2.3 Conversational analyses of code-switching see Nilep interactional section Macro-sociolinguistic aspects of code-switching, while giving a useful insight, can never determine absolutely code-switching. Gumperz (1982) maintained that in order to define the functions of code-switching a close and detailed analysis of conversation is necessary. On the basis of this he identified a list of six functions (quotation marking, addressee specification, interjection, reiteration, message qualification, and personalization versus objectivization. This list has led on to many other similar attempts to identify a list of code-switching functions (Romaine 1989; Nishimura 1997; Zentella 1997). These lists are problematic, however, as there are often problems with definition, as Auer (1995) points out. Although these may provide some useful guidelines, they are inadequate as a complete answer to the functions that code-switching carries out. .Auer (1984) claims that bilingual interaction is susceptible to local methods of language negotiation and code choice and is autonomous at one level from the larger ideological and societal structures to which it are related. Conversational analyses of code-switching focus on the actual interactions and the fulfilment of interactional goals which take place between the speakers rather than on external factors. Li Wei (2005) regards Conversation Analysis as an extension of Rational Choice analyses, but seeking evidence from talk-in-interaction rather than from external knowledge of community structure and relations (p.375). Myers-Scotton and Bolonyai (2001) have criticised this approach for the emphasis on transcriptions techniques and lack of focus on motivational choices. Li Wei (2002) claims that the conversational analysis approach is often used without explicit reference to the reasons why, but that it can demonstrate the motivation and intentions of the speaker in addition to r evealing the process of generating ordered activity . Code-switching is commonly believed to be related to other manifestations of bilingual or multilingual behaviour rather than an isolated occurrence. Translanguaging space covers a diversity of practices including code-switching, code-mixing, crossing and creolization. Li Wei (2010) studied the multilingual practices of three Chinese undergraduate maths students resident in Britain through Moment Analysis. This aims to capture seemingly spur-of-the-moment performances and to establish their causes and results. Speakers seemed to express their identities and create their own social spaces through utilization of the linguistic resources available to them. Translanguaging space can be a reflection of an individuals identity and demonstrates the way individuals use their linguistic resources to create their own space, rather than responding to external factors. Various patterns of interactions can be analysed in sequential code-switching Auer (1995). These can involve both the interlocutors speaking in different languages to each other, for example one person speaking consistently in English while the other replies in Lithuanian. However, this often leads to one interlocutor beginning to use the other language and becomes a monolingual conversation. When this pattern is seen it can indicate the preference of language by a speaker. It can also show the level of competence in a language (usually the speaker is more competent in his or her preferred language). It could indicate language choice for a social reason. Reyes (2004) states that code-switching can be used to extend communicative competence in situations where a single language is not adequate. Milroy and Wei (1995) claim that interlocutors decide on a language and that code-switching occurs within this. This code-switching becomes interactional in that participants often choose to speak in the language which best suits their interlocutor (Milroy and Li Wei, 1995). Their study found that Chinese immigrants to the UK varied in their language practices according to age, with the older generation preferring to use their Chinese mother tongue, and the younger generation showing a preference for English. Code-switching within this appeared to be used for repetition and emphasis, clarification and confirmation, as well as making language repairs (this last only amongst the adults). Critiques of Conversation Analysis claim that a focus too closely on conversation as the starting point for analysis in addition to not allowing macro-sociolinguistic evidence can result in unsatisfactory analysis of non-Western language behaviour. [L]anguage use and patterns of code-switching both structure and are structured by indigenous cultural practices (Stroud 1998 p.322). 2.3 Code-switching and level of proficiency Code-switching has traditionally been seen as the result of a lack of competence in one of the languages, or a practice which is lazy or inhibits language learning. Bullock and Toribio (2009) state that it is .à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ perceived by the general public as indicative of language degeneration (Bullock and Toribio 2009 p.1). However, studies have shown that these viewpoints do not reflect the truth (Hughes, Shaunessy et al. 2006). By focusing on code-switching as a resourceful process, it is possible to see the ways in which languages are used for communication and to advance learning (Liebscher and Dailey-OCain 2005). Weinreich (1953) described an idealised bilingual speaker who would use both codes distinctly. However, Grosjean (1997) has asserted that neither language system of a bilingual can be fully deactivated. This implies that bilinguals generally differ in some way from monolinguals, even in their principal language. Even the concept of the native speaker is now being cha llenged by code-switching practices (Gardner-Chloros 2009). The issue of the level of proficiency of the speaker and the effect of this on code-switching has long been under debate. McClure (1977) noted that the use of code-switching changes with age. Younger children were seen to code-switch nouns whereas older ones switched phrases and sentences, thus indicating that there is a level of proficiency which must be reached for code-switching to take place. However, according to Myers-Scotton (1993), there is no clear level of proficiency that a speaker must obtain in a second language in order for code-switching to take place. Code-switching has been seen as a strategy to cope with deficiencies in one or both of the languages (MacSwan 1999). These deficiencies were previously referred to as semilingualism (Cummins and Miramonte, 1989, in MacSwan, 1999) and were thought of as causing low academic achievement in multilingual children (Milroy and Muysken 1995, Tokuhama-Espinosa 2003). However, Li Wei (2000) points out that the term was used for ethnic minorities and not for the speakers of mainstream languages. Poplack (1980) was critical of the term for the implication that the speakers are not fully literate, and the stigma involved for those it referred to. Romaine (1995) points out that: Although it is popularly believed by bilingual speakers themselves that they mix or borrow because they do not know the term in one language or another, it is often the case that switching occurs most often for items which people know and use in both languages. The bilingual just has a wider choice at least when he or she is speaking with bilingual speakers. In effect, the entire second language system is at the disposal of the code-switcher. (1995, p. 143) A study carried out by Valadez, MacSwan and Martà ­nez